Burundi (pronounced [buˈɾundi]), officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked A landlocked country is a country entirely enclosed by land, or whose only coastlines lie on closed seas. As of 2008, there are 44 landlocked countries in the world. Of the major landmasses, only North America and Australia do not have a landlocked country inside their respective continents country in the Great Lakes The Great Lakes of Africa are a series of lakes in and around the geographic Great Rift Valley formed by the action of the tectonic East African Rift. They include Lake Victoria, the second largest fresh water lake in the world in terms of surface area, and Lake Tanganyika, the world's second largest in volume as well as the second deepest. The region of Eastern Africa East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa: bordered by Rwanda The Republic of Rwanda , known as the Land of a Thousand Hills, is a landlocked country located in the Great Lakes region of eastern-central Africa, bordered by Uganda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania to the north, Tanzania Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E The United Republic of Tanzania is a nation in central East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian to the east and south, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo , known until 1997 as Zaire, is a country located in Central Africa, with a small length of Atlantic coastline. It is the third largest country in Africa by area. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is, with the population more than 68 million, the eighteenth most populous nation in the world, and the fourth to the west. Its size is just under 28,000 km² with an estimated population of almost 8,700,000. Its capital is Bujumbura Bujumbura is the capital city and main port of Burundi and ships most of the country's chief export, coffee, as well as cotton, skins, and tin ore. It is located on the northeastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. Although the country is landlocked A landlocked country is commonly defined as one enclosed or nearly enclosed by land. As of 2008, there are 44 landlocked countries in the world. Of the major landmasses, only North America and Australia do not have a landlocked country inside their respective continents, much of the southwestern border is adjacent to Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika is an African Great Lake . It is estimated to be the second or third largest freshwater lake in the world by volume, and the second deepest, after Lake Baikal in Siberia. The lake is divided between four countries – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Tanzania and Zambia, with the DRC (45%) and Tanzania (41%).

The Twa Trans World Airlines was a major United States-based airline with hubs in St. Louis, New York (JFK) and Atlanta, with focus cities in Kansas City, Missouri; San Juan, Puerto Rico; and Los Angeles, California. The airline operated from 1930 until it was acquired by American Airlines in 2001, Tutsi Tutsi are an ethnic group in Central Africa. They are one of the three largest populations of Rwanda and Burundi, the other two being the Hutu and the Twa, and Hutu The Hutu /ˈhuːtuː/ are a Central African ethnic group, living mainly in Rwanda and Burundi peoples have occupied Burundi since the country's formation five centuries ago. Burundi was ruled as a kingdom by the Tutsi for over two hundred years. However, at the beginning of the twentieth century, Germany A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, has been known and documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern Germany became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. As a modern nation-state, and Belgium Belgium (pronounced /ˈbɛldʒəm/ , BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organizations, including NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a occupied the region, and Burundi and Rwanda became a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi Ruanda-Urundi was a Belgian suzerainty from 1916 to 1924, a League of Nations Class B Mandate from 1924 to 1945 and then a United Nations trust territory until 1962, when it became the independent states of Rwanda and Burundi.

Political unrest occurred throughout the region because of social differences between the Tutsi and Hutu, provoking civil war in Burundi throughout the middle twentieth century. Presently, Burundi is governed as a presidential representative democratic republic. Sixty-two percent of Burundians are Roman Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with more than a billion members. The Church's leader is the Pope who holds supreme authority in concert with the College of Bishops of which he is the head. A communion of the Western church and 22 autonomous Eastern Catholic churches (called, eight to ten percent are Muslims A Muslim or Moslem is an adherent of the religion of Islam. Literally, the word means "one who submits (to God)". Muslim is the participle of the same verb of which Islam is the infinitive. All Muslims observe Sunnah, but differences in the definition of what is and what is not Sunnah has led to the emergence of sectarian movements.[ and the rest follow indigenous beliefs Animism is a philosophical, religious or spiritual idea that souls or spirits exist not only in humans but also in animals, plants, rocks, natural phenomena such as thunder, geographic features such as mountains or rivers, or other entities of the natural environment. Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true and other Christian A Christian (pronounced /ˈkrɪstʃən/ ) is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who Christians believe is the Messiah (the Christ in Greek-derived terminology) prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, and the son of God. Most Christians believe in the doctrine of denominations.

Burundi is one of the ten poorest countries in the world This article includes three lists of countries of the world sorted by their gross domestic product at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita, the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year divided by the average (or mid-year) population for the same year. It has the lowest per capita GDP of any nation in the world.[4] Burundi has a low gross domestic product The gross domestic product or gross domestic income (GDI) is a measure of a country's overall economic output. It is the market value of all final goods and services made within the borders of a country in a year. It is often positively correlated with the standard of living, though its use as a stand-in for measuring the standard of living has largely due to civil wars, corruption, poor access to education, and the effects of HIV/AIDS. Burundi is densely populated, with substantial emigration Emigration is the act of leaving one's native country or region to settle in another. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin. Human movement before the establishment of political boundaries or within one state, is termed migration. There are many reasons why people might choose to emigrate. Some are for. Cobalt Cobalt is a hard, lustrous, gray metal, a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. Cobalt-based colors and pigments have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints, and miners have long used the name kobold ore for some minerals and copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable, and a freshly exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a are among Burundi's natural resources. Some of Burundi's main exports include coffee and sugar.

Contents

History

Main article: History of Burundi

European conquest

After its defeat in World War I World War I was a military conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918 and involved most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 15 million people were, Germany A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, has been known and documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern Germany became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. As a modern nation-state, handed control of a section of the former German East Africa German East Africa was a German colony in East Africa, including what are now Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika (the mainland part of present Tanzania). It measured 994,996 km² (384,170 square miles) in size, nearly three times the size of re-united Germany today to Belgium Belgium (pronounced /ˈbɛldʒəm/ , BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organizations, including NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a.[5] On October 20, 1924, this land, which consisted of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, officially became a part of the Belgian colonial empire The Belgian colonial empire consisted of three colonies possessed by Belgium between 1901 and 1962: Zaire , Rwanda and Burundi. The empire was unlike those of the major European imperial powers in that roughly 98% of it was just one colony (about 76 times larger than Belgium)—the Belgian Congo—which had originated as the private property of and was known as Ruanda-Urundi Ruanda-Urundi was a Belgian suzerainty from 1916 to 1924, a League of Nations Class B Mandate from 1924 to 1945 and then a United Nations trust territory until 1962, when it became the independent states of Rwanda and Burundi However, the Belgians allowed Ruanda-Urundi to continue its kingship dynasty.[1][6]

Following World War II, Ruanda-Urundi was a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority.[1] During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country. On October 4, 1943, powers were split in the legislative division of Burundi's government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities also had powers.[6] In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form political parties.[5] These factions would be one of the main influences for Burundi's independence from Belgium.

Independence and civil war

On January 20, 1959, Burundi's ruler Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested from the Belgian Minister of Colonies a separation of Burundi and Rwanda and a dissolution of Ruanda-Urundi.[7] Six months later, political parties were formed to bring attention to Burundi's independence from Europe and to separate Rwanda from Burundi.[7] The first of these political parties was the Unité pour le Progrès National (UPRONA).

Burundi's push for independence was influenced to some extent by the instability and ethnic persecution that occurred in Rwanda. In November 1959, Rwandese Hutu attacked the Tutsi and massacred them by the thousands. Many Tutsi escaped to Burundi to find freedom from persecution. While in Burundi, Tutsi fought against the Hutu, and many Tutsi soldiers killed Hutu peasants in retaliation for Hutu violence in Rwanda.[8] The Hutu managed to take power in Rwanda by winning Belgian-run elections in 1960.[9][10]

The Unity for National Progress (UPRONA), a multi-ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore , together with the Christian Democratic Party (PDC), became the most prominent organizations throughout Burundi-Urundi. After UPRONA's victory in legislative elections, Prince Rwagasore was assassinated in 1961, allegedly with the help of the Belgian colonial administration.[5]Instability followed.[11]

The country claimed independence in July 1, 1962,[5] and legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi.[12] Mwami Mwambutsa IV was named king.[9] On September 18, 1962, just over a month after declaring independence from Belgium, Burundi joined the United Nations The United Nations Organization or simply United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of.[13]

Upon Burundi’s independence, a constitutional monarchy was established and both Hutus and Tutsis were represented in Parliament. However, during Burundi's move to become an independent nation, Hutu forces took control of the country, forcing the Tutsi out, with many fleeing to Rwanda to escape ethnic persecution and death. During 1962 and 1963, approximately 12,000 Tutsi were killed, and between 140,000 to 250,000 people escaped to Rwanda.[14] When, in 1965, King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister, the Hutus, who were the majority in parliament, felt cheated. An ensuing attempted coup by the Hutu-dominated police was ruthlessly suppressed by the Army, then led by a Tutsi officer, Captain Michel Micombero[15] When the next Hutu Prime Minister, Pierre Ngendandumwe, was assassinated in 1965, Hutus engaged in a series of attacks on Tutsi, which the government repressed ruthlessly, fearing the killings of Tutsis by the neighboring Rwandan Hutu regime. The Burundi police and military were now brought under the control of the Tutsis.

Mwambutsa was deposed in 1966 by his son, Prince Ntare V, who claimed the throne. That same year, Tutsi Prime Minister Captain Michel Micombero deposed Ntare, abolished the monarchy, and declared the nation a republic, though it was in effect a military regime.[16]

In 1972, an all Hutu organization known as UBU (Umugambwe w'Abakozi b'Uburundi or Burundi Workers' Party) organized and carried out systematic attacks on ethnic Tutsi with the declared intent of annihilating the whole group. (See Marc Manirakiza, 1992, Burundi : de la révolution au régionalisme, 1966-1976, Le Mât de Misaine, Bruxelles, pp 211–212, ). The military regime responded with large-scale reprisals targeting Hutus. The total number of casualties was never established, but estimates for the Tutsi genocide and the reprisals on the Hutus together are said to exceed the 100,000 at the very least, with a similar number of asylum-seekers in Tanzania and Rwanda. In 1976, another Tutsi, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, led a bloodless coup and promoted various reforms. A new constitution was promulgated in 1981, keeping Burundi a one-party state.[15] In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state. However, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms.

Major Pierre Buyoya, a Tutsi, overthrew Bagaza in 1987 and suspended the constitution, dissolved the political parties, and reinstated military rule under the Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN).[15] Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by the remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988. The death toll was put at 5,000 by the government (though some international NGOs believe this understates the losses).

The new regime did not unleash harsh reprisals (as in 1972), but the trust it gained was soon eroded when it decreed an amnesty for the those who had called for, carried out and taken credit for the killings on ethnic grounds, which amounts to genocide in international law. Many analysts consider this period as the beginning of the "culture of impunity."

In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya, asking for more representation of the Hutus in the administration. The signatories were sent to prison, but only few weeks after, Buyoya appointed a new government with an equal number of Hutus and Tutsi, and a Hutu, Adrien Sibomana, as Prime Minister. Buyoya also created a commission in charge of addressing the issue of national unity.[15] In 1992, a new constitution that provided for multi-party system was promulgated.[15]

An estimated 250,000 people died between 1962 and 1993.[17]

During 1992, a civil war sprang up from Burundi's core. An estimated 300,000 were killed in a following genocide as a response to this war. The ethnic groups of Hutu and Tutsi came to power and have been at war since the beginning of the independence of Burundi.

First attempt at democracy

In June 1993, Melchior Ndadaye, leader of the Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), won the first democratic election and became the first Hutu head of the state, leading a pro-Hutu government. However, in October 1993, Tutsi soldiers assassinated Ndadaye, which started further years of violence between Hutus and Tutsis. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in the years following the assassination.[18]

In early 1994, the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira, also a Hutu, to the office of president. He and the president of Rwanda were killed together when their airplane was shot down. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Another Hutu, parliament speaker Sylvestre Ntibantunganya was appointed as president in October 1994. Within months, a wave of ethnic violence began, starting with the massacre of Hutu refugees in the capital, Bujumbura, and the withdrawal of the mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress from the government and parliament.

In 1996, Pierre Buyoya, a Tutsi, took power through a coup d’état. He suspended the constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. In response to the rebel attacks, the population was forced by the government to relocate to refugee camps.[19] Under his rule, long peace talks started, mediated by South Africa. Both parties signed agreements in Arusha Arusha is a city of northern Tanzania surrounded by some of Africa's most famous landscapes and national parks. Beautifully situated below Mount Meru on the eastern edge of the eastern branch of the Great Rift Valley, it has a pleasant climate and is close to Serengeti, Ngorongoro Crater, Lake Manyara, Olduvai Gorge, Tarangire National Park, and, Tanzania Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E The United Republic of Tanzania is a nation in central East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian and Pretoria Pretoria is a city located in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the country's three capital cities, serving as the executive and de facto national capital; the others are Cape Town, the legislative capital, and Bloemfontein, the judicial capital, South Africa Coordinates: 29°02′46″S 25°03′47″E / 29.046°S 25.063°E The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a 2,798 kilometres coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an independent, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan, and on August 28, 2000, a transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several aborted cease-fires, a 2001 peace plan and power sharing agreement has been relatively successful. A cease-fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy).[20]

In 2003, FRODEBU Hutu leader Domitien Ndayizeye was elected president.[21] In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi's government. Throughout the year, elections for parliamentary and president occurred.[22] To this day, conflicts between the Hutu and the Tutsi continue. As of 2008, the Burundian government is talking with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF)[23] to bring peace to the country.[24] In 2005, Pierre Nkurunziza, once a leader of a Hutu rebel group, was elected to president.

Peace agreements

Following the request of the United Nation Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali Boutros Boutros-Ghali (born 14 November, 1922) is an Egyptian diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations (UN) from January 1992 to December 1996 to intervene in the humanitarian crisis, African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions. Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995; following his death, South African President Nelson Mandela Bantustan · District Six · Robben Island took the helm. As the talks progressed, South African President Thabo Mbeki Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki is a South African politician who served almost two terms as the second post-apartheid President of South Africa from 14 June 1999 to 24 September 2008. He is also the brother of Moeletsi Mbeki. On 20 September 2008, he announced his resignation after being recalled by the African National Congress's National Executive and United States President Bill Clinton William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton was the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. At 46 he was the third-youngest president. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and was the first baby boomer president. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States Secretary of State. Each received a Juris would also lend their respective weight.

The peace talks took the form of Track I mediations. This method of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives, who may use their positive reputations, mediation or the “carrot and stick” method as a means of obtaining or forcing an outcome, frequently along the lines of “bargaining” or “win-lose”.[25]

The main objective framing the talks was a structural transformation of the Burundian government and military as a way to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsis and Hutus. This would be accomplished in two ways. First, a transitional power sharing government would be established, with the president holding office for three year terms. The second objective involved a restructuring of the military, where the two groups would be represented equally.

As the protracted nature of the peace talks demonstrated, there were several obstacles facing the mediators and negotiating parties. First, the Burundian officials perceived the goals as “unrealistic” and viewed the treaty as ambiguous, contradictory and confusing. Second, and perhaps most importantly, the Burundians believed the treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying cease fire. This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups. The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power-sharing government; they alleged that they were deceived by the Tutsis in past agreements.[26]

In 2000, the Burundian President signed the treaty, as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions. However, disagreements persisted over which group would preside over the nascent government and when the ceasefire would commence. The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord; as a result, violence intensified. Three years later at a summit of African leaders in Tanzania, the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict; the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within the government. However, smaller militant Hutu groups – such as the Forces for National Liberation – remained active.

UN involvement

Between 1993 and 2003, many rounds of peace talks, overseen by regional leaders in Tanzania Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E The United Republic of Tanzania is a nation in central East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian, South Africa Coordinates: 29°02′46″S 25°03′47″E / 29.046°S 25.063°E The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a 2,798 kilometres coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an independent, and Uganda The Republic of Uganda is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, which is also bordered by Kenya, gradually established power-sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups. African Union (AU) peacekeepers were deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government. In June 2004, the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi.[27]

The mission’s mandate, under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, has been to monitor cease-fire; carry out disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former combatants; support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return; assist with elections; protect international staff and Burundian civilians; monitor Burundi’s troublesome borders including halting illicit arms flows; and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of the Constitution, judiciary, armed forces, and police. The mission has been allotted 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police, and about 1,000 international and local civilian personnel. The mission has been functioning well and has greatly benefited from the existence of a fairly functional transitional government, which is in the process of transitioning into a more legitimate, elected entity.[27]

The main difficulty the operation faced at first was the continued resistance to the peace process by the last Tutsi nationalist rebel group. This organization continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN’s presence. By June 2005, the group had stopped fighting and was brought back into the political process. All political parties have accepted a formula for inter-ethnic power-sharing, which means no political party can gain access to government offices unless it is ethnically integrated.[27]

The focus of the UN’s mission had been to enshrine the power-sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution, so that elections may be held and a new government installed. Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations. In February 2005, the Constitution was approved with over 90% of the popular vote. In May, June, and August 2005, three separate elections were also held at the local level for the Parliament and the presidency.

While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war-weary population, the mission has overall managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders as well as the population at large.[27] It has also been involved with several “quick impact” projects including rehabilitating and building schools, orphanages, health clinics, and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines.

2006 to present

Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re-focused on helping with reconstruction.[28] Toward achieving economic reconstruction, Rwanda, D.R.Congo and Burundi relaunched the regional economic bloc: The Great Lakes Countries Economic Community.[28] In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the East African Community The East African Community is an intergovernmental organisation comprising the five east African countries Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. While generally, the member nations are largely in favor of the East African Federation,[citation needed] informal polls indicate that most Tanzanians (80% of its population) have an unfavorable in 2007.

However, the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group, the FLN (Forces for National Liberation, also called NLF or FROLINA), were not totally implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left the truce monitoring team, claiming that their security was threatened.[29] In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing. Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country.[28] The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners.[30] In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where former combatants now live, in search of peace. The homes of rural residents were also pillaged.[30]

The 2007 report[30] of Amnesty International Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organisation. Its stated mission is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated." mentions many areas where improvement is required. Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN. The latter also recruits child soldiers. The rate of violence against women is high. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system. Genocide CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR, war crimes War crimes are "violations of the laws or customs of war"; including "murder, the ill-treatment or deportation of civilian residents of an occupied territory to slave labor camps", "the murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war", the killing of hostages, "the wanton destruction of cities, towns and villages, and crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity, as defined by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court Explanatory Memorandum, "are particularly odious offences in that they constitute a serious attack on human dignity or grave humiliation or a degradation of one or more human beings. They are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a remain unpunished. The establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission A truth commission or truth and reconciliation commission is a commission tasked with discovering and revealing past wrongdoing by a government , in the hope of resolving conflict left over from the past. They are, under various names, occasionally set up by states emerging from periods of internal unrest, civil war, or dictatorship. South Africa' and a Special Tribunal Tribunal in the general sense is any person or institution with the authority to judge, adjudicate on, or determine claims or disputes—whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title. For example, an advocate appearing before a Court on which a single Judge was sitting could describe that judge as 'their tribunal'. Many governmental bodies for investigation and prosecution has not yet been implemented. The freedom of expression is limited, journalists are frequently arrested for carrying out legitimate professional activities. A total of 38,087 Burundian refugees have been repatriated between January and November 2007.

In late March 2008, the FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them ‘provisional immunity’ from arrest. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity .[30] Even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN is unable to obtain the provisional immunity.

On April 17, 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The Burundian army fought back and the FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on May 26, 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa, with the mediation of Charles Nqakula, South Africa’s Minister for Safety and Security. This was the first direct meeting since June 2007. Both agree to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during the peace negotiations.[31]

Refugee camps are now closing down, and 450,000 refugees have returned. The economy of the country is shattered – Burundi has the lowest per capita gross income There are three lists of countries of the world sorted by their gross domestic product (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year). The GDP dollar estimates given on this page are derived from purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations in the world. With the return of refugees, amongst others, property conflicts have started.

Politics

Pierre Nkurunziza, president of Burundi Main article: Politics of Burundi

Burundi's political system is presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The President of Burundi is the head of state and head of government. There are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi.[5] On March 13, 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution,[32] which provided for a multi-party political process[33] and reflected multi-party competition. Six years later, on June 6, 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assembly's seats and making provisions for two vice presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a transitional government in 2000.[34]

Burundi's legislative branch is a bicameral assembly, consisting of the Transitional National Assembly and the Transitional Senate. As of 2004, the Transitional National Assembly consists of 170 members, with the Front for Democracy in Burundi holding 38% of seats, and 10% of the assembly is controlled by UPRONA. Fifty-two seats are controlled by other parties. Burundi's constitution mandates representation in the Transitional National Assembly to be consistent with 60% Hutu, 40% Tutsi, and 30% female members, as well as three Batwa members.[5] Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote and serve for five year terms.[35]

The Transitional Senate has fifty-one members, and three seats are reserved for former presidents. Due to stipulations in Burundi's constitution, 30% of Senate members must be female. Members of the Senate are elected by electoral colleges, which consist of members from each of Burundi's provinces and communes.[5] For each of Burundi's seventeen provinces, one Hutu and one Tutsi senator are chosen. One term for the Transitional Senate is five years.[36]

Together, Burundi's legislative branch elect the President to a five-year term.[37] Burundi's president appoints officials to his Council of Ministers, which is also part of the executive branch.[34] The president can also pick fourteen members of the Transitional Senate to serve on the Council of Ministers.[5] Members of the Council of Ministers must be approved by two-thirds of Burundi's legislature. The president also chooses two vice-presidents.[37] As of 2008, the President of Burundi is Pierre Nkurunziza. The First Vice President is Dr. Yves Sahinguvu, and the Second Vice President is Gabriel Ntisezerana.[38]

The Court Supreme (Supreme Court) is Burundi's highest court. There are three Courts of Appeals directly below the Supreme Court. Tribunals of First Instance are used as judicial courts in each of Burundi's provinces as well as 123 local tribunals.[34]

Provinces, communes and collines

Map of provinces Main articles: Provinces of Burundi, Communes of Burundi, and Collines of Burundi

Burundi is divided into 17 provinces,[1] 117 communes,[5] and 2,638 collines (hills).[39] Provincial governments are structured upon these boundaries. In 2000, the province encompassing Bujumbura was separated into two provinces, Bujumbura Rural and Bunjumbura Mairie.[4]

The provinces are:

Geography

Map of Burundi Main article: Geography of Burundi

One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi is landlocked and has an equatorial climate. Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the Great Rift Valley. The country lies on a rolling plateau in the center of Africa. The average elevation of the central plateau is 5,600 feet (1,707 m), with lower elevations at the borders. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 8,810 feet (2,685 m),[40] lies to the southeast of the capital, Bujumbura. The Nile is a major river in Burundi.[41][clarification needed] Lake Victoria is also an important water source, which serves as a fork to the Kagera River.[42][43] Another major lake is Lake Tanganyika, located in much of Burundi's southwestern corner.[44]

Burundi's lands are mostly agricultural or pasture. Settlement by rural populations has led to deforestation, soil erosion and habitat loss.[45] Deforestation of the entire country is almost completely due to overpopulation, with a mere 230 square miles (600 km2) remaining and an ongoing loss of about 9% per annum.[46] There are two national parks, Kibira National Park to the northwest (a small region of rain forest, adjacent to Nyungwe Forest National Park in Rwanda), Rurubu National Park to the northeast (along the Rurubu River, also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu). Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations.[47]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Burundi

Burundi is one of the world's poorest countries, owing in part to its landlocked geography,[1] poor legal system, lack of access to education, and the proliferation of HIV/AIDS. Approximately 80% of Burundi's population lives in poverty.[48] Famines and food shortages have occurred throughout Burundi, most notably in the 20th century,[6] and according to the World Food Programme, 56.8% of children under age five suffer from chronic malnutrition.[49] One scientific study of 178 nations rated Burundi's population as having the lowest satisfaction with life in the world.[50] As a result of poverty, Burundi is dependent on foreign aid.[1]

Burundi's largest industry is agriculture, which accounted for 58% of the GDP in 1997. Subsistence agriculture accounts for 90% of agriculture.[51] The nation's largest source of revenue is coffee, which makes up 93% of Burundi's exports.[52] Other agriculture products include cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, and hides. Some of Burundi's natural resources include uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper, and platinum.[53] Besides agriculture, other industries include: assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing, and light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, and soap. Burundi's currency is the Burundian franc (BIF); As of July 2008, 1,184 Burundian franc were equivalent to one United States dollar.[1]

Burundi is part of the East African Community and a potential member of the planned East African Federation.

Demographics

A group of Burundian women rearing goats Main article: Demographics of Burundi

As of 2008, Burundi was projected to have an estimated population of 8,691,005 people. This estimate explicitly takes into account the effects of AIDS, which has a significant effect on the demographics of the country.[1] Over 500,000 have been displaced due to the disease.[4] Many Burundians have migrated to other countries as a result of the civil war. In 2006, the United States accepted approximately 10,000 Burundian refugees.[54]

Most Burundians live in rural areas, and about six percent of the population live in urban areas.[55] The population density of around 315 people per square kilometer (753 per sq mi) is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.[5] Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi, and fewer than one percent are Twa.[56]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Burundi
Religion in Burundi[57]
religion percent
Roman Catholic   62%
Indigenous   23%
Islam   10%
Protestant   5%

Sources estimate the Christian population to be 67 percent, with Roman Catholics representing the largest group at 62 percent. Protestant and Anglican practitioners constitute the remaining 5 percent. An estimated 23 percent of the population adheres to traditional indigenous religious beliefs; some of the traditional indigenous groups promoted cures for HIV/AIDS and other ailments. The Muslim population is estimated to be at 10 percent, the majority of whom live in urban areas. Sunnis make up the majority of the Muslim population, and the remainder is Shi'a.[58]

Health

Main article: Health in Burundi

There is less healthcare in Burundi than in most other countries. Life expectancy at birth is estimated at 48.5 years. (2005) [59] A large proportion of the population is undernourished.[59] There were 3 physicians per 100,000 persons in the early 2000s.[59] The HIV/AIDS prevalence has been about 4.2 % in 2007.[60]

Culture

Gitega drums Main articles: Culture of Burundi and Music of Burundi

Burundi's culture is based on local tradition and the influence of neighboring countries, though cultural prominence has been hindered by civil unrest. Since farming is the main industry in Burundi, a typical Burundian meal consists of sweet potatoes, corn, and peas. Due to the expense, meat is only eaten a few times per month. When several Burundians of close acquaintance meet for a gathering they drink impeke, a beer, together from a large container to symbolize unity. Notable Burundians include the footballer Mohammed Tchite, singer Jean Pierre Nimbona, popularly known as Kidum (who is based in Nairobi, Kenya)[61]

Crafts are an important art form in Burundi and are attractive gifts to many tourists. Basket weaving is a popular craft for Burundian artisans.[62] Other crafts such as masks, shields, statues, pottery are made in Burundi.[63]

Drumming is an important part of Burundian cultural heritage. The world-famous Royal Drummers of Burundi, who have performed for over forty years, are noted for traditional drumming using the amashako, ibishikiso, and ikiranya drums.And a new group called the Burundi drummers Of Atlanta have been showing their talent lately and they are said to be magnificent at what they do.[64] Dance often accompanies drumming performance, which is frequently seen in celebrations and family gatherings. The abatimbo, which is performed at official ceremonies and rituals, and the fast-paced abanyagasimbo are some famous Burundian dances. Some musical instruments of note are the flute, zither, ikembe, indonongo, umuduri, inanga, and the inyagara.[65]

Football in Burundi

Kirundi, French, and Swahili are spoken throughout Burundi.[1] Burundi's literacy rate is low, due to low school attendance. Ten percent of Burundian boys are allowed a secondary education.[66] Burundi's oral tradition is strong and relays history and life lessons through storytelling, poetry, and song. Imigani, indirimbo, amazina, and ivyivugo are types of literary genres existing in Burundi.[67]

Basketball and track and field are noted sports in Burundi.[68] Football is a popular pastime throughout the country, as are mancala games. In Burundi most Christian holidays are celebrated, with Christmas being the largest.[69] Burundian Independence Day is celebrated annually on July 1.[70] In 2005, the Burundian government declared Eid al-Fitr, an Islamic holiday, to be a public holiday.[71]

In April 2009 the government of Burundi passed changes in law, criminalising homosexuality. Persons found guilty of consensual same-sex relations risk two to three years in prison and a fine of 50,000 to 100,000 Burundian francs. Amnesty International has condemned the action, calling it a violation of Burundi’s obligations under international and regional human rights law, and against Burundi’s constitution, which guarantees the right to privacy.[72]

Education

Main article: Education in Burundi

Burundi has the University of Burundi. There are several museums in the cities, such as the Burundi Geological Museum in Bujumbura and the Burundi National Museum and the Burundi Museum of Life in Gitega. Adult literacy is at about half among men and about a quarter among women.[73]

See also

Burundi portal
Africa portal
Main articles: Outline of Burundi and Index of Burundi-related articles

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i CIA – The World Factbook – Burundi CIA. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
  2. ^ 3rd general census (2008)
  3. ^ a b c d "Burundi". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=618&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=54&pr.y=16. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
  4. ^ a b c Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. xlix.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Background Note: Burundi. United States Department of State. February 2008. Retrieved on June 28, 2008.
  6. ^ a b c Weinstein, W., Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies, p. 5.
  7. ^ a b Weinstein, W., Political Conflict and Ethnic Strategies, p. 7.
  8. ^ MacDonald, F., Peoples of Africa, p. 60.
  9. ^ a b Timeline: Burundi. BBC. April 22, 2008. Retrieved on June 8, 2008.
  10. ^ Timeline: Rwanda. Amnesty International. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
  11. ^ Ethnicity and Burundi’s Refugees. African studies quarterly: The online journal for African Studies. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
  12. ^ Cook, C., What Happened Where, p. 281.
  13. ^ United Nations Member States. July 3, 2006. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
  14. ^ Uvin, Peter. Ethnicity and Power in Burundi and Rwanda: Different Paths to Mass Violence. Comparative Politics, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Apr., 1999). Published by: Ph.D. Program in Political Science of the City University of New York. p. 256.
  15. ^ a b c d e "Timeline: Burundi". BBC News. February 25, 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
  16. ^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2821.htm
  17. ^ Hagget, Peter. Encyclopedia of World Geography. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2002. ISBN 0-7614-7306-8.
  18. ^ BBC, Country profile Burundi. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm (accessed on 29-10-08)(1)
  19. ^ Global Security http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/burundi.htm
  20. ^ Global Ceasefire Agreement between Burundi and the CNDD-FDD. November 20, 2003. Relief Web. United Nations Security Council. Retrieved July 24, 2008.
  21. ^ Global Security http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/05/mil-080519-voa12.htm
  22. ^ Burundi: Basic Education Indicators. UNESCO. May 4, 2007. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
  23. ^ Haskin, Jeanne M. The Tragic State of the Congo: From Decolonization to Dictatorship. New York, NY: Algora Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-87586-416-3 p. 151.
  24. ^ Liang, Yin. "EU welcomes positive developments in Burundi". China View. Xinhua News Agency. June 4, 2008. Retrieved on June 29, 2008.
  25. ^ Ramsbotham, O., Woodhouse, T., Miall, H. Contemporary Conflict Resolution. Second Edition. Polity: Cambridge, 2007.
  26. ^ BBC News
  27. ^ a b c d Howard, Lise Morje (2008). UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  28. ^ a b c BBC, Time line Burundi. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1068991.stm (accessed on 29-10-08)
  29. ^ http://report2008.amnesty.org/eng/Regions/Africa/Burundi
  30. ^ a b c d http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2008/05/29/burund18974.htm
  31. ^ Peace Building Commission Update, A project of the Institute for Global Policy, 2008 http://www.pbcupdate.org/?p=114#more-114
  32. ^ Burundi. International Center for Transitional Justice. Retrieved on July 27, 2008.
  33. ^ Burundi – Politics. From "The Financial Times World Desk Reference". Dorling Kindersley. 2004. Prentice Hall. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  34. ^ a b c "Republic of Burundi: Public Administration Country Profile" (PDF). United Nations' Division for Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM): 5–7. July 2004. http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023253.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
  35. ^ Puddington, A., Freedom of the World, p. 145.
  36. ^ Puddington, A., Freedom of the World, p. 145–146.
  37. ^ a b Puddington, A., Freedom of the World, p. 146.
  38. ^ Burundi – World Leaders. CIA. Retrieved on June 28, 2008.
  39. ^ Kavamahanga, D. Empowerment of people living with HIV/AIDS in Gitega Province, Burundi. International Conference on AIDS 2004. July 15, 2004. NLM Gateway. Retrieved on June 22, 2008.
  40. ^ O'Mara, Michael. Facts about the World's Nations. Bronx, New York: H.W. Wilson, 1999. p. 150. ISBN 0-8242-0955-9
  41. ^ By Ash, Russell. The Top 10 of Everything. New York, New York: Sterling Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2006. ISBN 0-600-61557-X
  42. ^ Klohn, Wulf and Mihailo Andjelic. Lake Victoria: A Case in International Cooperation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved on July 20, 2008.
  43. ^ Budge, E. A. Wallace, The Egyptian Sudan: Its History and Monuments. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: J.P. Lippincott Company, 1907. p. 352.
  44. ^ Jessup, John E., An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Conflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945–1996, p. 97.
  45. ^ Bermingham, Eldredge, Christopher W. Dick, and Craig Moritz. Tropical Rainforests: Past, Present, and Future. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 2005. p. 146. ISBN 0-226-04468-8
  46. ^ Worldwide Deforestation Rates Food and Agriculture Organization of the U.N.: The State of the World's Forests 2003. Published on Mongabay.com. Retrieved on June 29, 2008.
  47. ^ East, Rob. African Antelope Database 1998. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature, 1999. p. 74. ISBN 2-8317-0477-4.
  48. ^ Burundi Population. Institute for Security Studies. Retrieved on June 30, 2008. Archived December 23, 2004 at the Wayback Machine.
  49. ^ Where We Work – Burundi. World Food Programme. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  50. ^ White, A. (2007). A Global Projection of Subjective Well-being: A Challenge to Positive Psychology? Psychtalk 56, 17–20. Retrieved June 8, 2008.
  51. ^ Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. xlvii.
  52. ^ Dinham, B., Agribusiness in Africa, p. 56.
  53. ^ Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, p. xlviii.
  54. ^ Kaufman, Stephen. U.S. Accepting Approximately 10,000 Refugees from Burundi. October 17, 2006. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  55. ^ MacDonald, F., Peoples of Africa, p. 62.
  56. ^ Eggers, E., Historical Dictionary of Burundi, ix.
  57. ^ CIA the World Fact Book
  58. ^ U.S. Department of State
  59. ^ a b c http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_BDI.html
  60. ^ http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/108954.php
  61. ^ Eating the Burundian Way. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  62. ^ Levin, Adam. The Art of African Shopping. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik, 2005. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-77007-070-7
  63. ^ Burundi Arts and Literature. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  64. ^ Center for the Arts Presents the Royal Drummers of Burundi. The Mason Gazette. September 14, 2006. George Mason University. Retrieved on July 20, 2008.
  65. ^ Arts and Literature. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  66. ^ Learning in Burundi. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  67. ^ Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. p. 114. ISBN 0-299-10214-9
  68. ^ Sports and Recreation. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  69. ^ Burundi Holidays. Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Retrieved June 30, 2008.
  70. ^ Trawicky, Bernard and Ruth Wilhelme Gregory. Anniversaries and Holidays. Chicago, Illinois: American Library Association. p. 110. ISBN 0-8389-0695-8
  71. ^ Burundi celebrates Muslim holiday. BBC. November 3, 2005. Retrieved on June 30, 2008.
  72. ^ http://www.samesame.com.au/news/international/3952/Bittersweet-Change-In-Burundi.htm Bittersweet Change In Burundi, Christian Taylor, SameSame.com.au
  73. ^ http://www.tradeport.org/countries/burundi/01grw.html

References

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