Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe A pipe is round tubular section or hollow cylinder used mainly to convey media. It can also be used for structural applications. In layman's terms the appellations pipe and tube are almost interchangeable, but in industry and engineering discipline the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured,. Most commonly, liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes Pneumatic tubes are systems in which cylindrical containers are propelled through a network of tubes by compressed air or by vacuum. They are used for transporting solid objects, as opposed to more generic pipelines, which transport gases or fluids that transport solid capsules using compressed air have also been used.

As for gases and liquids, any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Therefore sewage Sewage is water-carried wastes, in either solution or suspension, that is intended to flow away from a community. Also known as wastewater flows, sewage is the used water supply of the community. It is more than 99.9% pure water and is characterized by its volume or rate of flow, its physical condition, its chemical constituents, and the, slurry, water Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam, or even beer Beer is the world's most widely consumed and probably oldest alcoholic beverage, and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea. It is produced by the brewing and fermentation of starches, mainly derived from cereal grains—most commonly malted barley, although wheat, maize , and rice are widely used. Most beer is flavored with hops, pipelines exist; but arguably the most valuable are those transporting fuels Fuel is any material that can be used to generate energy to produce mechanical work in a controlled manner. The processes used to convert fuel into energy include chemical reactions, such as combustion, and nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as metabolism: oil Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, toxic, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. It is refined and separated, most easily by (oleoduct), natural gas Natural gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane. It is found associated with other fossil fuels, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills. It is an important fuel source, a major feedstock for fertilizers, and a potent greenhouse gas (gas grid) and biofuels Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil

Dmitri Mendeleev Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (also romanized Mendeleyev or Mendeleef; Russian: Дми́трий Ива́нович Менделе́ев listen ) (8 February [O.S. 27 January] 1834 – 2 February [O.S. 20 January] 1907), was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of elements first suggested using a pipe A pipe is round tubular section or hollow cylinder used mainly to convey media. It can also be used for structural applications. In layman's terms the appellations pipe and tube are almost interchangeable, but in industry and engineering discipline the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, for transporting petroleum Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, toxic, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. It is refined and separated, most easily by in 1863 Year 1863 was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar).

Types by transported substance

For oil or natural gas

There is some argument as to when the first oil pipeline was constructed. However, some say pipeline transport was pioneered by Vladimir Shukhov Vladimir Grigoryevich Shukhov , (August 28 [O.S. August 16] 1853 - February 2, 1939) was a Russian engineer-polymath, scientist and architect renowned for his pioneering works on new methods of analysis for structural engineering that led to breakthroughs in industrial design of world's first hyperboloid structures , lattice shell structures, and the Branobel The Petroleum Production Company Nobel Brothers, Limited,or Branobel , was an oil company set up by Ludvig Nobel and Baron Peter von Bilderling, in Baku, Azerbaijan. Firstly established by Robert Nobel (25 000 rubles) and the investments of barons Peter von Bilderling (300 000 rubles) and Standertskjöld (150 000 rubles) as a distillery in 1876, company in the late 19th century. Others say oil pipelines originated when the Oil Transport Association first constructed a 2-inch (51 mm) wrought iron pipeline over a 6-mile (9.7 km) track from an oil field in Pennsylvania to a railroad station in Oil Creek, in the 1860s. Regardless of this, pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, toxic, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. It is refined and separated, most easily by or natural gas Natural gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane. It is found associated with other fossil fuels, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills. It is an important fuel source, a major feedstock for fertilizers, and a potent greenhouse gas over land. Compared to railroad Rail transport is the means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled vehicles running on rail tracks. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles merely run on a prepared surface, rail vehicles are also directionally guided by the tracks they run on. Track usually consists of steel rails installed on sleepers/ties and ballast, on, they have lower cost per unit and higher capacity. Although pipelines can be built under the sea, that process is economically and technically demanding, so the majority of oil at sea is transported by tanker A tank ship or tankship, often referred to as a tanker, is a ship designed to transport liquids in bulk. Major types of tankship include the oil tanker, the chemical tanker, and the liquefied natural gas carrier ships.

Oil pipelines are made from steel Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing or plastic A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic amorphous solids[citation needed] used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce costs. Monomers of plastic are either natural or synthetic tubes with inner diameter typically from 10 to 120 cm (about 4 to 48 inches An inch is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including Imperial units, and United States customary units. There are 36 inches in a yard and 12 inches in a foot. A corresponding unit of area is the square inch and a corresponding unit of volume is the cubic inch. The inch is usually the universal unit of measurement in). Most pipelines are buried at a typical depth of about 1 - 2 metres (about 3 to 6 feet A foot is a non-SI unit of length in a number of different systems including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. Its size can vary from system to system, but in each is around a quarter to a third of a meter. The most commonly used foot today is the international foot. There are three feet in a yard and 12 inches in a). The oil is kept in motion by pump A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into five major groups: direct lift, displacement, velocity, buoyancy and gravity pumps. Their names describe the method for moving a fluid stations along the pipeline, and usually flows at speed of about 1 to 6 m/s. Multi-product pipelines are used to transport two or more different products in sequence in the same pipeline. Usually in multi-product pipelines there is no physical separation between the different products. Some mixing of adjacent products occurs, producing interface. At the receiving facilities this interface is usually absorbed in one of the product based on pre-calculated absorption rates.

Crude oil contains varying amounts of wax, or paraffin In chemistry, paraffin is a term that can be used synonymously with "alkane," indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Paraffin wax refers to a mixture of alkanes that falls within the 20 ≤ n ≤ 40 range; they are found in the solid state at room temperature and begin to enter the liquid phase past approximately 37°C, and in colder climates wax buildup may occur within a pipeline. Often these pipelines are inspected and cleaned using pipeline inspection gauges Pigging in the maintenance of pipelines refers to the practice of using pipeline inspection gauges or 'pigs' to perform various operations on a pipeline without stopping the flow of the product in the pipeline. These operations include but are not limited to cleaning and inspection of the pipeline. This is accomplished by inserting the pig into a ' pigs, also known as scrapers or Go-devils. Smart pigs are used to detect anomalies in the pipe such as dents and holes in the coating ^[1] These devices are launched from pig-launcher stations and travel through the pipeline to be received at any other station down-stream, cleaning wax deposits and material that may have accumulated inside the line.

For natural gas, pipelines are constructed of carbon steel and varying in size from 2 inches (51 mm) to over 60 inches (1,500 mm) in diameter, depending on the type of pipeline. The gas is pressurized by compressor stations and is odorless unless mixed with a mercaptan odorant In organic chemistry, a thiol is a compound that contains the functional group composed of a sulfur-hydrogen bond . Being the sulfur analogue of an alcohol group (-OH), this functional group is referred to as either a thiol group or a sulfhydryl group. In the more traditional sense, thiols are often referred to as mercaptans where required by a regulating authority.

For biofuels (ethanol and biobutanol)

Pipelines have been used for transportation of ethanol in Brazil, and there are several ethanol pipeline projects in Brazil and the United States.^[2] Main problems related to the shipment of ethanol by pipeline are its high oxygen content, which makes it corrosive, and absorption of water and impurities in pipelines, which is not a problem with oil and natural gas.^[2][3] Insufficient volumes and cost-effectiveness are other considerations limiting construction of ethanol pipelines.^[3][4]

For hydrogen

Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a pipe A pipe is round tubular section or hollow cylinder used mainly to convey media. It can also be used for structural applications. In layman's terms the appellations pipe and tube are almost interchangeable, but in industry and engineering discipline the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it is manufactured, as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of hydrogen production Hydrogen production is usually the term for the industrial methods for generating hydrogen. Currently the dominant technology for direct production is steam reforming from hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is also produced as a byproduct of other processes and managed with hydrogen pinch. Many other methods are known including electrolysis and thermolysis or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, with transport costs similar to CNG Compressed Natural Gas is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released),^[5] the technology is proven,^[6]. Most hydrogen Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its is produced at the place of demand with every 50 to 100 miles (160 km) an industrial production facility.^[7]. The 1938 - Rhine-Ruhr The Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region is the largest metropolitan region in Germany with about 11,500,000 inhabitants. It is of polycentric nature and the only megacity in Germany. It covers an area of 7,110 square kilometers and lies entirely within the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region spreads from the 240 km hydrogen pipeline is still in operation^[8]. As of 2004 there are 900 miles (1450 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the USA and 930 miles (1,500 km) in Europe.

For water

Two millennia ago the ancient Romans The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean. The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus made use of large aqueducts to transport water from higher altitudes by building the aqueducts in graduated segments that allowed gravity to push the water along until it reached its destination. Hundreds of these were built throughout Europe and elsewhere, and along with flour mills were considered the lifeline of the Roman Empire. The ancient Chinese also made use of channels and pipe systems for public works. The infamous Han Dynasty court eunuch Zhang Rang (d. 189 AD) once ordered the engineer Bi Lan to construct a series of square-pallet chain pumps outside the capital city of Luoyang.^[9] These chain pumps serviced the imperial palaces and living quarters of the capital city as the water lifted by the chain pumps were brought in by a stoneware pipe system.^[9][10]

Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where canals or channels are poor choices due to considerations of evaporation, pollution, or environmental impact.

The 530 km (360 mile) Goldfields Water Supply Scheme in Western Australia using 760 mm (30 inch) pipe and completed in 1903 was the largest water supply scheme of its time.^[11][12]

Examples of significant water pipelines in South Australia are the Morgan-Whyalla (completed 1944) and Mannum-Adelaide [1] (completed 1955) pipelines.

There are two Los Angeles, California aqueducts, the First Los Angeles Aqueduct (completed 1913) and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct (completed 1970) which also include extensive use of pipelines.

For beverages

For beer

Bars in the Veltins-Arena, a major football ground in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, are interconnected by a 5 km long beer pipeline. It is the favorite method for distributing beer in such large stadiums, because the bars have to overcome big differences between demands during various stages of a match; this allows them to be supplied by a central tank.

For other uses

The town of Hallstatt in Austria claims to contain "the oldest industrial pipeline in the world", dating back to 1595.^[13] It was constructed from 13,000 trunks to transport saline solution for 40 kilometers from Hallstatt to Ebensee.^[14]

Types by transport function

In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:

Gathering pipelines

Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short- a couple of hundred meters- and with small diameters. Also sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms are considered gathering systems.

Transportation pipelines

Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas, refined products) between cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks include several compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multiproducts pipelines.

Distribution pipelines

Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses downstream. Pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities are included in this group.

Operation

When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the civil work to lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation.

Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field Instrumentation includes flow, pressure and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices to measure the relevant data required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some specific locations, such as injection or delivery stations, pump stations (liquid pipelines) or compressor stations (gas pipelines), and block valve stations.

The information measured by these field instruments is then gathered in local Remote Terminal Units (RTU) that transfer the field data to a central location in real time using communication systems, such as satellite channels, microwave links, or cellular phone connections.

Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as The Main Control Room. In this center, all the data related to field measurement is consolidated in one central database. The data is received from multiple RTUs along the pipeline. It is common to find RTUs installed at every station along the pipeline.

The SCADA system at the Main Control Room receives all the field data and presents it to the pipeline operator through a set of screens or Human Machine Interface, showing the operational conditions of the pipeline. The operator can monitor the hydraulic conditions of the line, as well as send operational commands (open/close valves, turn on/off compressors or pumps, change setpoints, etc.) through the SCADA system to the field.

To optimize and secure the operation of these assets, some pipeline companies are using what is called Advanced Pipeline Applications, which are software tools installed on top of the SCADA system, that provide extended functionality to perform leak detection, leak location, batch tracking (liquid lines), pig tracking, composition tracking, predictive modeling, look ahead modeling, operator training and more.

Technology

Components

Pipeline networks are composed of several pieces of equipment that operate together to move products from location to location. The main elements of a pipeline system are:

Initial injection station

Known also as supply or inlet station, is the beginning of the system, where the product is injected into the line. Storage facilities, pumps or compressors are usually located at these locations.

Compressor/pump stations

Pumps for liquid pipelines and Compressors for gas pipelines, are located along the line to move the product through the pipeline. The location of these stations is defined by the topography of the terrain, the type of product being transported, or operational conditions of the network.

Partial delivery station

Known also as intermediate stations, these facilities allow the pipeline operator to deliver part of the product being transported.

Block valve station

These are the first line of protection for pipelines. With these valves the operator can isolate any segment of the line for maintenance work or isolate a rupture or leak. Block valve stations are usually located every 20 to 30 miles (48 km), depending on the type of pipeline. Even though it is not a design rule, it is a very usual practice in liquid pipelines. The location of these stations depends exclusively on the nature of the product being transported, the trajectory of the pipeline and/or the operational conditions of the line.

Regulator station

This is a special type of valve station, where the operator can release some of the pressure from the line. Regulators are usually located at the downhill side of a peak.

Final delivery station

Known also as outlet stations or terminals, this is where the product will be distributed to the consumer. It could be a tank terminal for liquid pipelines or a connection to a distribution network for gas pipelines.

Leak detection systems

Since oil and gas pipelines are an important asset of the economic development of almost any country, it has been required either by government regulations or internal policies to ensure the safety of the assets, and the population and environment where these pipelines run.

Pipeline companies face government regulation, environmental constraints and social situations. Pipeline companies should comply with government regulations which may define minimum staff to run the operation, operator training requirements, up to specifics including pipeline facilities, technology and applications required to ensure operational safety. As an example, in the State of Washington, it is mandatory for pipeline operators to be able to detect and locate leaks of 8 percent of maximum flow within 15 minutes or less.

The social situation also affects the operation of pipelines. In third world countries, product theft is a problem for pipeline companies. It is common to find unauthorized extractions in the middle of the pipeline. In this case, the detection levels should be under 2 percent of maximum flow, with a high expectation for location accuracy.

Different types of technologies and strategies have been implemented, from physically walking the lines to satellite surveillance. The most common technology to protect these lines from occasional leaks is known as Computational Pipeline Monitoring Systems or CPM. CPM takes information from the field related to pressures, flows, and temperatures to estimate the hydraulic behavior of the product being transported. Once the estimation is done, the results are compared to other field references to detect the presence of an anomaly or unexpected situation, which may be related to a leak.

The American Petroleum Institute has published several articles related to the performance of CPM in liquids pipelines, the API Publications are:

• API 1130 – Computational pipeline monitoring for liquids pipelines

• API 1155 – Evaluation methodology for software based leak detection systems

• API 1149 – Pipeline variable uncertainties & their effects on leak detectability

Implementation

As a rule pipelines for all uses are laid in most cases underground. However in some cases it is necessary to cross a valley or a river on a pipeline bridge. Pipelines for centralized heating systems are often (why?) laid on the ground or overhead. Pipelines for petroleum running through permafrost areas as Trans-Alaska-Pipeline are often run overhead in order to avoid melting the frozen ground by hot petroleum which would result in sinking the pipeline in the ground.

Regulation

In the US, pipelines are regulated by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA). Offshore pipelines are regulated by the Minerals Management Service (MMS). In Canada, pipelines are regulated by either the provincial regulators or, if they cross provincial boundaries or the Canada/US border, by the National Energy Board (NEB). Government regulations in Canada and the United States require that buried fuel pipelines must be protected from corrosion. Often, the most economical method of corrosion control is by use of pipeline coating in conjunction with cathodic protection and technology to monitor the pipeline. Above ground, cathodic protection is not an option. The coating is the only external protection.

Pipelines and geopolitics

Pipelines for major energy resources (petroleum and natural gas) are not merely an element of trade. They connect to issues of geopolitics and international security as well, and the construction, placement, and control of oil and gas pipelines often figure prominently in state interests and actions. A notable example of pipeline politics occurred at the beginning of the year 2009, wherein a dispute between Russia and Ukraine ostensibly over pricing led to a major political crisis. Russian state-owned gas company Gazprom cut off natural gas supplies to Ukraine after talks between it and the Ukrainian government fell through.

Oil and gas pipelines also figure prominently in the politics of Central Asia and the Caucasus.

Dangers

Accidents

Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns.

For a more complete list see List of pipeline accidents

• 1982 - One of the largest non-nuclear explosions in history occurred along the Trans-Siberian Pipeline in the former Soviet Union. It has been alleged that the explosion was the result of CIA sabotage of the Trans-Siberian Pipeline.
• June 4, 1989 - sparks from two passing trains detonated gas leaking from an LPG pipeline near Ufa, Russia. Up to 645 people were reported killed.
• October 17, 1998 - 1998 Jesse pipeline explosion at Jesse in the Niger Delta in Nigeria, a petroleum pipeline exploded killing about 1,200 villagers, some of whom were scavenging gasoline - the worst of several similar incidents in this country.
• June 10, 1999 - a pipeline rupture in a Bellingham, Washington park led to the release of 277,200 gallons of gasoline. The gasoline was ignited, causing an explosion that killed two children and one adult.
• August 19, 2000 - natural gas pipeline rupture and fire near Carlsbad, New Mexico; this explosion and fire killed 12 members of the same family. The cause was due to severe internal corrosion of the pipeline.
• July 30, 2004 - a major natural gas pipeline exploded in Ghislenghien, Belgium near Ath (thirty kilometres southwest of Brussels), killing at least 24 people and leaving 132 wounded, some critically. (CNN) (Expatica)
• May 12, 2006 - an oil pipeline ruptured outside Lagos, Nigeria. Up to 200 people may have been killed. See Nigeria oil blast.
• November 1, 2007 - a propane pipeline exploded near Carmichael, Mississippi, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Meridian, Mississippi. Two people were killed instantly and an additional four were injured. Several homes were destroyed and sixty families were displaced. The pipeline is owned by Enterprise Products Partners LP, and runs from Mont Belvieu, Texas, to Apex, North Carolina, according to an Enterprise spokesman. [2]

As targets

Pipelines can be the target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks, as destruction of pipelines can seriously disrupt enemy logistics.

See also

• Pipeline bridge
• List of countries by total length of pipelines
• Gas-grid injection
• Black Powder in Gas Pipelines
• Geomagnetically induced current, (GIC)
• HCNG dispenser
• Hydraulically Activated Pipeline Pigging
• Hydrogen piping
• Hydrostatic test
• Infrastructure
• List of North American natural gas pipelines
• Petroleum rapid transit
• Pipeline integrity management
• Pneumatic tube, a method for sending documents and other solid materials in capsules through a tube
• Plastic Pressure Pipe Systems
• Pig (pipeline)
• Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes
• Russia-Ukraine gas dispute
• Slurry pipeline
• Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act

References

1. ^ go-devil - definition of go-devil by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia.
2. ^ ^{a b} James MacPherson (2007-11-18). "Ethanol makers consider coast-to-coast pipeline". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/2007-11-18-ethanolpipeline_N.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
3. ^ ^{a b} John Whims (August 2002) (PDF). Pipeline Considerations for Ethanol. Kansas State University. http://www.agmrc.org/NR/rdonlyres/4EE0E81C-C607-4C3F-BBCF-B75B7395C881/0/ksupipelineethl.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
4. ^ "Ethanol pipeline places the cart before the horse". The Daily Iowan. 2008-08-24. http://media.www.dailyiowan.com/media/storage/paper599/news/2008/07/24/Opinions/Ethanol.Pipeline.Places.The.Cart.Before.The.Horse-3394187.shtml. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
5. ^ Compressorless Hydrogen Transmission Pipelines
6. ^ DOE Hydrogen Pipeline Working Group Workshop
7. ^ Every 50 to 100 miles (160 km)
8. ^ The Technological Steps of Hydrogen Introduction - pag 24
9. ^ ^{a b} Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 33.
10. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 345-346.
11. ^ Mephan Ferguson Australian Dictionary of Biography(online version)
12. ^ The Forrest family Dynasties, ABC. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
13. ^ Billie Ann Lopez. "Hallstatt's White Gold - Salt". http://www.virtualvienna.net/columns/billie/hallstatt/hallstatt.html. Retrieved 2007-05-15.
14. ^ See the article Hallstatt for details and references.

External links

• The Dolphin Project: The Development of a Gulf Gas Initiative, by Justin Dargin, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies Jan 2008 Working Paper NG #22
• UK - Linewatch - a joint awareness initiative between 14 oil and gas pipeline operators

Categories: Commercial item transport and distribution | Pipelines | Oil pipelines | Piping | Natural gas pipelines | Vladimir Shukhov

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